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Illusion - Is Seeing Really Believing?
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Illusion - Is Seeing Really Believing (1998)(Marshall Media)[Mac-PC].iso
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00029_Field_frep19.txt
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1996-12-30
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You will notice in the
diagram how common
divergence and convergence
are: how almost as a rule the
axon from a cell in a given stage
splits on arriving at the next
stage and ends on several or
many cells, and conversely, a
cell at any stage except the first
receives synaptic inputs from a
few or many cells in the
previous stage.
We obviously need to amend
and qualify this simplified
diagram, but at least we have a
model to qualify. We must first
recognize that at the input end
we have not just one but many
sensory systems--vision,
touch, taste, smell, and
hearing--and that each system
has its own sets of stages in the
brain. When and where in the
brain the various sets of stages
are brought together, if indeed
they are brought together, is
still not clear.
In tracing one system such
as the visual or auditory from
the receptors further into the
brain, we may find that it splits
into separate subdivisions. In
the case of vision, these
subsystems might deal
separately with eye movements,
pupillary constriction, form,
movement, depth, or color.
Thus the whole system diverges
into separate subpathways.
Moreover, the subpaths may be
many, and may differ widely in
their lengths. On a gross scale,
some paths have many
structures along the way and
others few. At a finer level, an
axon from one stage may not go
to the next stage in the series
but instead may skip that stage
and even the next; it may go all
the way to the motor neuron.
(You can think of the skipping
of stages in neuroanatomy as
analogous to what can happen
in genealogy. The present
English sovereign is not related
to William the Conqueror by a
unique number of generations:
the number of "greats"
modifying the grandfather is
indeterminate because of
intermarriage between
nephews and aunts and even
more questionable events.)
When the path from input to
output is very short, we call it a
reflex. In the visual system,
the constriction of the pupil in
response to light is an example
of a reflex, in which the
number of synapses is probably
about six. In the most extreme
case, the axon from a receptor
ends directly on a motor
neuron, so that we have, from
input to output, only three
cells: receptor, motor neuron,
and muscle fiber, and just two
synapses, in what we call a
monosynaptic reflex arc.
(Perhaps the person who coined
the term did not consider the
nerve-muscle junction a real
synapse, or could not count to
two.) That short path is
activated when the doctor taps
your knee with a hammer and
your knee jumps. John Nicholls
used to tell his classes at
Harvard Medical School that
there are two reasons for
testing this reflex: to stall for
time, and to see if you have
syphilis.